The Mesaba Energy Project Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Mesaba Energy Project - Case Study Example The site should accommodate multiple generating units, covering more than 1,000 acres to provide buffer zone between the plant facilities and nearby communities. Preferred project location is West Range Plant Site, Greenfield which is designated for auxiliary mining purposes ("Area Definitions"). The main objective for this site is due to Iron range that is only about 70 miles northwest of Duluth near Taconite and Bovey. Other than this, natural gas pipelines, high voltage transmission line corridors and viable rail service are also the deciding factors. An alternate site is also under consideration, located in the east range plant site; which is closer to Hoyt Lake iron range, about 50 mile north of Duluth and has access to water as well as feed-stock transportation option ("Minnesota Hydrology Guide", 1992). An estimated total project costs approximately $1.97 Billion, Department of Energy share is $36 Million. It is expected to complete construction work by 2011 and after that wit hin one year to start its operation. The main attributes to this project are, 2005 Energy Policy Act that provides loan guarantees, legislatively mandated PPA with Northern States Power (A3/BBB-), Regulatory incentives and exemption from certificate of need, Public support and large demand in market, and fuel flexibility or lowest-cost fuel ("Mesaba"). MEP: From Coal to Technology Project is supposed to be designed with a thought as fuel efficient where primary material is coal; a small statistic outlines the fuel compositions which can be used interchangeably; 100% coal including Powder River Basin sub-bituminous and Illinois No. 6 bituminous coals, up to 1:1 ratio of coal and petroleum coke blend and petroleum coke. A group of MIT studied on role of coal to lessen its effect on global climate change. They came up with a result that carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology can reduce carbon dioxide emission to a significant amount without hampering its energy output requirement. According to Dr. Deutch: As the world's leading energy user and greenhouse gas emitter, the U.S. must take the lead in showing the world CCS can work. Demonstration of technical, economic, and institutional features of CCS at commercial scale coal combustion and conversion plants will give policymakers and the public confidence that a practical carbon mitigation control option exists, will reduce cost of CCS should carbon emission controls be adopted, and will maintain the low-cost coal option in an environmentally acceptable manner. Coal is a low cost and its usage is increasing day by day. So using coal directly without CCS will affect the climate directly leading to a global change. CCS enables coal to meet its energy criteria in future and in parallel saving the atmosphere from CO2 emissions as coal contains a high carbon percentage ("Future of Coal", 2007). Fuel gasification is done first which is a process of converting coal, petroleum coke etc into gaseous state from solid one. It is similar to natural gas and used for electric power generation. The gasification process that MEP will use is ConocoPhillips' E-Gas technology. Raw materials are first crushed and slurry is formed which is pumped

The awareness of the physical abuse of the elderly in living Research Proposal

The awareness of the physical abuse of the elderly in living facilities - Research Proposal Example The proposed report posits using quantitative survey research in a fixed design, which will bring new dimensions to the general discussion of preventing elder abuse. The awareness of the physical abuse of the elderly in living facilities is an important issue today, and is the subject of the proposed report. Abuse and neglect are too often visited upon older individuals who have lost some degree of their independence, and many areas do not have the programs necessary to effectively counter this threat. There is even abuse and neglect that goes on with healthcare facilities, and this is perhaps the most insidious sort of abuse. In some cultures, the elderly are prized and honored above all other citizens and groups, but unfortunately this is not the case in the present culture. Older individuals are more likely to be seen as being in the way of the young than as role models who should be exalted because of their aged wisdom. Presently, however, many individuals are treated harshly by healthcare facilities and even their own kin, making elder abuse a significant problem in society. Also, in terms of economic scales, older individuals who are of a lower socio-economic class are more likely to be abused or mistreated. These people may lack a stable caregiver. The proposed report will look into all aspects of abuse, including verbal, sexual, emotional, and financial abuse of the elderly; however, physical abuse is the main consideration that the proposed report will focus upon. â€Å"Physical abuse is generally considered the most extreme form of elder maltreatment. Such physical abuse includes slapping, blunt force trauma, bites, pinching, traumatic alopecia, burns and scalds, force feeding, overmedication, undermedication, and improper medication, and improper use of physical restraints. Physical abuse accounts for up to 14% of all elder trauma and

Nature And Scope Of Romanticism In Music Music Essay

Nature And Scope Of Romanticism In Music Music Essay Essay topic: Critically compare the main ideas regarding the nature and scope of Romanticism in music as set forth by Warrack, Samon, Burkholder and Whittall. Then, choosing any three major pieces of 19th century instrumental music critically compare their structure and style in some detail in light of the ideas you have gathered about Romanticism and its influence on musical composition in the 19th century. To set your suitable context, you should also carefully consider the extent to which the formal, tonal, stylistic and aesthetic aspects of the works chosen for study show their indebtedness to the spirit and forms of the preceding Classical period and the ways in which they may comprise a continuation, or a significant modification or even a repudiation of these. The Romantic period took its name from the ancient lingua romana of France. In the 18th century, scholars use the term to refer to free and imaginative (Samson, 2001). Warrack 1987, described Romantic as the period which was adventurous both in subject matter and in its invention. Unlike Classical, the Romantic represents a period of a domination of instinct over reason, of imagination over form, of heart over head. Whittall described in her article that Romantic does not move away completely from classical music, but it give more emphasise of element already present in classicism. Romantic composers tried to make music speak programmatically.There were many features of Romanticism that were distinct from the classical period, however many of them are derived from the Classical root. The most important of the many deriving from the key figure of Rousseau, was a new preoccupation with nature (Warrack 1987). Romanticism also saw an increased focus on melodies and themes. Orchestra was expanded and each instrument had its own role. The emphasis on melody found expression in extensive use of cycle form. New attention was also given to national identity. The Classical era was also one which was highly productive. Music became much more expressive, and the sound and quality of the instruments became more refined. This increasingly led to music being created which was able to evoke emotions and instill character such as none before its time. The combination of these elements has heavily influenced the subsequent development of music to the present time, from the very language of music to our increasing understanding of the link between music and emotions. In the following essay, I am going to discuses the main ideas regarding the nature and scope of Romanticism in music. Also three works of Romantic period will be compared in its formal, tonal and aesthetic aspects which show their repudiation and continuation to the sprit and forms of the preceding Classical period. Part one French Revolution The late 18th and 19th century was a time of political and economic revolution Napoleon Bonaparte became the leader of the Republic in 1799 and conquered most of Europe. Although the Revolution failed, its idea, which included the freedom, reform and a new concept of nation, speed across Europe (Burkholder, 2010). This Revolution had a significant impact on music, the French Revolutionary government supported large choral works and opera with librettos on themes of the Revolution or concerns of the time. Nationalism Because of the struggle of Revolution, Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many central European people lacking their own national states. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous culture from those of dominant nation. The increasing importance of nationalism as a political force in the 19th century was mirrored in music and other arts. Many composers expressed their nationalism by incorporation elements unique to their native culture, such as folk song and dances. Composers used elements of rhythm, melody and modality characteristic of their respective nation (Kamien, 2003). The nationalist music echoed peoples fears, hopes and aspirations; it was the voice of Revolution. This national flavor of Romantic music-whether Polish, Russian or German contrasts with the more universal character of Classical music. Industrial revolution During the Romantic period, there were two major events that transformed Romanticism. New technologies began to transform the economy from a rural to an urban economy based on manufacturing by machines. It made major improvements in the mechanical valves and keys that most woodwind and brass instruments depend on. The new instrument often had a bigger, fuller and better tuned sound. They were played in new ways to produce different tone color. In addition, the development of piano enabled louder dynamic and more varied tone color. At the same time, there was a rise of the middle class. Whereas composers had previously lived on the patronage of the aristocracy, romantic composers often wrote for public concerts and festivals with large audiences of paying customers. Individualism Romantic music puts unprecedented emphasis on self expression and individual equality of style. Many romantic composers created music that sounds unique and reflects their personalities. The Romantics presented boldness over the preceding ages desire for restraint. They promoted the conception of the artist as inspired creator over that of the artist as maker or technical master (Kamien, 2003). Through individualism, the composer would reveal the world in expressing himself, hence the growing importance of expression as a source of aesthetic value, overriding the claims of formal propriety and convention (Samson, 2001). In addition, the changing economy not only made individualism attractive to the newly rich, it made possible a free market in the arts in which composers could play for audience who would pay for their performances. The emphasis on emotion and expressive tone color Romanticism describes the expansion of formal structures, making the piece more passionate. While classical era had strict laws of balance and restraint, the Romantic era moved away from that by allowing artistic freedom, experimentation, and creativity. Expressive, and melody become the dominate feature. The increasing use of dissonance and extended use of chromaticism, the properties of the diminished seventh facilitate modulations to many keys. Wagner and Beethoven also expanded the harmonic languages with un-used chords. In addition, there is a greater harmonic fluidity and longer melodies. The pianos were being used which improved chromatic abilities and greater projection of the instruments of the symphony orchestra (Brooklyn, 2009). The stress on individual also created greater reliance on instrumental color. While new instruments were constantly being added to the orchestra, composers also tried to get new and different sound out of the instruments already used and Berlioz was an expert in doing this. Exoticism Romanticism reached beyond the rational and classicist ideals models. It attempts to escape the confines of population growth, urban sprawl, and industrialism, and it also attempted to embrace the exotic, unfamiliar and distant in modes. Of all the emotions celebrated by the Romantics, the most popular was exoticism. Just as Romantics responded to the longing of people for a distant past, so they provided images of distant places. The distances need not be terribly great: Spain was a favourite exotic setting for French Romantics, for instance. North Africa and the Middle East provided images of Asia to Europeans. Generally anywhere south of the country where one was resided was considered more relaxed, more colourful, and more sensual (Brains, 1998). Romantic age was also a period in which Europeans travelled more than ever to examine far off lands of which they had read. Most native peoples were depicted as lazy. Many male travellers view the women of many foreign lands and described them as more sexually desirable than the women at home, and so they are depicted in fiction, drama, art and opera. At the same time, the imagination was elevated to a position as the supreme faculty of the mind. Not satisfied with the world as given, the artist meddles with reality and creates another reality. It is dynamic, uniting both reason and feeling. The emphasis on the activity of the imagination was accompanied by greater emphasis on the importance of intuition and instincts. Part two Beethoven as a transitional figure Ludwig Van Beethoven was considered the greatest artist of all time. He was aware of Enlightenment ideals; absorbed the music of Haydn and Mozart and absorbed the French Revolution (Burkholder, 2009). His style opened new realms of musical expression and profoundly influenced composers throughout the 19th century. For Beethoven, music was not just entertainment, but a moral force capable of creating a vision of higher ideals. His music reflects his powerful, tortured personality. More than his predecessors, Beethoven tried to unify the contrasting movements of a symphony, sonata, or string quartets. Musical continuity is heightened in his works in several ways. Sometimes one movement leads directly into the next, instead of ending with a pause, as was traditional. A musical bond between different movements of the same work is also created when their themes resemble each other. In his compositions such as the Ninth Symphony, a theme from one movement is quoted in a later movement (Kamien, 2004). Piano Sonata in C minor, Op.13 Beethovens thirty-two sonata are far more difficult than the sonata of Haydn and Mozart. They exploit the stronger, tonally improved piano of Beethovens time. One of his most famous sonatas is the Pathtique. It was written in 1798 when the composer was twenty-seven. The title Pathtique suggests a tragically passionate character in this sonata. Beethovens masterful improvisational powers are mirrored in the sonatas extreme dynamic contrasts, explosive accents, and crashing chords. At the early age of twenty seven, during his early period, Beethoven had already created a powerful and original piano style that foreshadowed 19th century Romanticism. First Movement The first movement of the Pathtique is in the Classical sonata form, but the material is quite different form that of a traditional sonata forms. It begins with a slow introduction common in symphonies. The dotted rhythm evokes the style of the French overture. In this movement, the tragic mood is intensified by dissonant chords, sudden contrast of dynamics and register, and paused filled with expectancy. The slow introduction is integrated into allegro that followed it in imaginative and dramatic ways (Kamien, 2004). Second movement and third movement The second movement is in rondo form. One of the interesting features of the adagio is its range in texture. After having a thick four voice texture in the principal themes, Beethoven temporarily reduces the texture to one voice near the closing B section. The last movement, in C minor, is a rapid and energetic rondo. This piano sonata is dramatic and intriguing. Beethoven drew many new effects from the piano; in addition, he experimented with compositional techniques that he would later expand in the symphonies and string quartets. The name perfectly catches the pieces character full of rhetorical gestures. Hector Berlioz Another important genre of the Romantic period is program music- instrumental music associated with a story, poem, idea or scene. Programmatic orchestral works such as Berliozs Fantastic Symphony depict the emotions, characters, and events of particular story or the sounds and motions of nature (Kamien, 2004). The French Romantic composer Hector Berlioz is known for his symphonies fantastique. This symphony tells the story of an artist gifted with a lively imagination who has poisoned himself with opium in the depths of despair because of hopeless love (Oxford, 2002). He composed this work in 1830 which was his first major work, although there were few of the musical ideas derived from some of his earlier composition but the countless aspect of this score are representative of Berliozs individual musical style. Among them are his rhythmically flexible, characteristically long spun melody of which the ides fixe is a prime example, contrasting harmonies, use of dynamics and instruments (Boston, 2006). First movement The first movement is daydream-passions. The melancholy, passion and fury and jealousy form the subject of the first movement. The form is similar to sonata form of the Classical composition. Through the movement, there is simplicity of presentation of the melody and themes. The most important element in the first movement is the idà ©e fixes. As talked previous, Beethoven had found remarkable ways of unifying large multi movement works, especially in his Ninth Symphony, by recycling motives. Such cyclism had a profound impact on romantic composer. One strategy Berlioz used to unify the symphonies fantastique is to have a melody, which he calls an idà ©e fixe, appear in each of the five movements. The idà ©e fixe were used to represent his beloved. This recurrence of the same theme in every movement of symphony was striking novelty in Berliozs day (Oxford, 2002). Second movement The second movement was titled A Ball. It has a mysterious sounding introduction that creates an atmosphere of excitement followed by harps dominated passage. The harp may symbolize the object of affection; provide the glamour and sensual richness of the ball being represented. The use of instruments to symbolize certain things is a special Romantic feature that was not used in classical period. Third movement In the third movement, Berlioz evokes a mood of loneliness in the midst of nature: a solo English horn is encoded by an oboe an octave higher. No previous symphonic movement had ever begun with a duet between these two instruments (Kamien, 2004). He saves the heaviest orchestration for the last two movements where he depicts the fantastic and diabolical. Though the supernatural had long been dealt with in opera, this is its first expression in an important symphony. Fourth and fifth movement In the fourth movement, Berlioz creates a menacing atmosphere with the opening orchestral sound, a unique combination of muted French horns and brass playing pizzicato chords. In the last movement, the high muted strings and basses begin a succession of fragmentary ideas in contrasting tone color, register and dynamic (Kamien, 2004). From his work, we can see that Berlioz is no doubt the creator of new orchestral sound. He still maintained the form used in classical period, however he also understood the role of timbre and he made the musics importance not just in melody and rhythm but in sound. The weird, never heard before sound and the asymmetrical rhythm made this amazing work a truly romantic manifesto. Brahms and his work Another important composer in the romantic period is Johannes Brahms. He was a master of creating piece of all the traditional form. One of his most famous works is Symphony No.4 in E minor, Op.98. The first movement of this work is in Classical sonata form and is dominated by this expansive opening them. The second movement has an airs of a requiem, it opens with a melancholic sort of fanfare. The rapid third movement is a scherzo in sonata form. This movement is joyful and stomping, which resembled dancing tunes which was famous in Brahmss life time (Kamien, 2004). The fourth movement is the climax of the symphony. It is a type of theme and variation related to the Baroque ground bass form. His use of Baroques variation form is unique in the Romantic symphonic and reflects his strong attachment to the musical past (Burkholder, 2009). Conclusion The Romantic was an important period of transformation into 20th century. The Industrial revolution, individualism, the emphasis on emotion and expressive tone color has all influenced composers in later centuries. In addition, they no longer view themselves as artists writing music to suit their patrons, as earlier composers saw themselves, but as artists expressing their own ideas and feelings (Burkholder, 2009). Romantic is truly an era of greatness.

Obsessive-compulsive Behaviors Essay -- essays research papers

Obsessive-Compulsive Behaviors "Compulsive" and "obsessive" have become everyday words. "I'm compulsive" is how some people describe their need for neatness, punctuality, and shoes lined up in the closets. "He's so compulsive is shorthand for calling someone uptight, controlling, and not much fun. "She's obsessed with him" is a way of saying your friend is hopelessly lovesick. That is not how these words are used to describe Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder or OCD, a strange and fascinating sickness of ritual and doubts run wild. OCD can begin suddenly and is usually seen as a problem as soon as it starts. Compulsives (a term for patients who mostly ritualize) and obsessives (those who think of something over and over again) rarely have rituals or thoughts about nuetral questions or behaviors. What are their rituals about? There are several possible ways to list symptoms of OCD. All sources agree that the most common preoccupations are dirt (washing, germs, touching), checking for safety or closed spaces (closets, doors, drawers, appliances, light switches), and thoughts, often thoughts about unacceptable violent, sexual, or crude behavior. When the thoughts and rituals of OCD are intense, the victim's work and home life disintigrate. Obsessions are persistant, senseless, worrisome, and often times, embarrassing, or frightening thoughts that repeat over and over in the mind in an endless loop. The automatic nature of these recurant thoughts makes them difficult for the person to ignore or restrain successfully. The essence of a Compulsive Personality Disorder is normally found in a restricted person, who is a perfectionist to a degree that demands that others to submit to hisher way of doing things. A compulsive personality is also often indecisive and excessively devoted to work to the exclusion of pleasure. When pleasure is considered, it is something to be planned and worked for. Pleasurable activities are usually postponed and sometimes never even enjoyed. With severe compulsions, endless rituals dominate each day. Compulsions are incredibly repetitive and seemingly purposeful acts that result from the obsessions. The person performs certain acts according to certain rules or in a stereotypi... ...ty to discard worn out or worthless objects." (A.P.A.,'80) So much is asked about where our everyday lives stop and OCD begins. The basis of Obsessive -Compulsive Disorder is still unknown. The evidence for a biological cause is compelling but unfortunately it is still necessary to speak of the biology of behavior in vague terms. The effect of a drug, and the normality of many of the families with an OCD kid makes the importance of "poor upbringing" as a cause of OCD uncertain to say the least. This is a disease that may be thought of as doubts gone wild. Patients doubt their very own senses. They cannot believe any reasurance of everyday life. Reassurance does not work. The notion that there is a biological basis for a sense of "knowing" has interesting philosophical implications. We are normally convinced that what we see and feel is truely there. If this is a "doubting disease," and if a chemical controls this sense of doubt, then is our usual, normal belief in what our everyday senses and common sense tell us similarly determined by our brain chemistry?

About Love Essay

Overpopulation[edit source | editbeta] Further information: Family planning in India and Demographics of India India suffers from the problem of overpopulation. The population of India is very high at an estimated 1.27 billion.[1][2][3] Though India ranks second in population, it ranks 33 in population density. Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, had implemented a forced sterilization programme in the early 1970s but the programme failed. Officially, men with two children or more were required to be sterilised, but many unmarried young men, political opponents and ignorant, poor men were also believed to have been affected by this pogramme. This program is still remembered and regretted in India, and is blamed for creating a public aversion to family planning, which hampered Government programmes for decades.[4] See more: Ethnic groups and racism essay Definition of ‘Social Economics’ Problems Socio Economics Problems focuses on the relationship between social behavior and economics. Social economics examines how social norms, ethics and other social philosophies that influence consumer behavior shape an economy, and uses history, politics and other social sciences to examine potential results from changes to society or the economy. 1. Overpopulation : India suffers from the problem of overpopulation. Though India ranks second in population, it ranks 33 in terms of population density below countries such as The Netherlands, South Korea and Japan. To cure this problem, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, had implemented a forced sterilization programme in the early 1970s but failed. Officially, men with two children or more had to submit to sterilization, but many unmarried young men, political opponents and ignorant, poor men were also believed to have been sterilized. This program is still remembered and criticized in India, and is blamed for creating a wrong public a version to family planning, which hampered Government programmes for decades. Overpopulation Overpopulation is becoming one of the most preeminent problems facing human civilization. This complicated, pervasive issue will come to be a problem of the utmost importance for people of all races, religions, and nationalities. Our planet now provides for approximately 5.8 billion people, with projections of around 10 billion by the year 2050. Two billion of these are extremely poor, the poorest of which live in absolute poverty and misery. One very serious effect of the population explosion is its detrimental effects on the global environment. Increasing amounts of food, energy, water, and shelter are required to fulfill the needs of human society. Much of our energy is derived from the burning of fossil fuels-releasing millions of metric tons of toxins into the atmosphere annually. The amount of land required for food production will grow increasingly larger, while the amount of available land will grow increasingly smaller. The affects of overpopulation on human society are many. Suffering from a lack of resources, people are often driven to war when they become too numerous for their available resources. Ethnic and racial differences will grow increasingly frequent and unresolvable. Increasing numbers in urban areas will lower quality of life in cities around the world. The precipitators of this complex issue are unlimited. Factors such as poverty, food distribution, and government corruption are all important aspects. No one will be unaffected by the repercussions of an overpopulated world. This highly sensitive and complex issue demands the attention of all who reside upon this planet, particularly those who have the ability to work for change.

Why is authenticity important in the pro-anorexia community?

Abstract The main argument that is advocated in this paper is â€Å"rationality vs. irrationality† – that maladaptive behavior can be justified, sought after and conditioned by a process of ‘groupthink’ and internal shifts of power. As a result, authenticity plays a vital part in this behavior as the group will urge members to be true to their own beliefs and practices in order to further the individual’s search for a sense of concrete realism in a seemingly irrational world. Introduction This essay relates to the lecture Beauty, Eating and Feminine Media which focuses on the embodiment of femininity and its representation in the media. This is done through world-wide concentration on beauty and eating practices that are expressed in media, and also explains some of the disorders that can appear as a result of these practices. It is argued that hegemonic femininity is not singular; thus creating multiple femininities. With this in mind, the paper will explore the extent that femininities are a product of patriarchy – a process of intergroup distinction in and of themselves, or a combination of both. The media’s representation of disorders and problems associated with feminine beauty and eating habits can act as a form of female ‘othering’ and distinction from its counter gender. Consequently, just how much these categories offer valuable sites of resistance is examined. Moreover, this essay is related to the Body, Media and Society model, in order to examine ‘the body’ in society with a focus on the role of media in representing, stereotyping and medicalising ‘the body’ in society. It examines how social structure and ‘the body’ are inherently connected, how they interact and how that interaction impacts on both the body and society as a whole. The module draws on the disciplinary approaches of Sociology and Media and Communications; specifically the sub-disciplines of the Sociology of the Body and Medical Sociology. This essay focuses on pro-anorexia communities, and the reasons why authenticity is important in such a community . These reasons will be separated into respective paragraphs as such:Characteristics of Anorexia Nervosa†¢Excessive weight loss †¢Food restraint †¢Fear of gaining weight †¢Obsessive vis-a-vis body image †¢10 times more likely in women †¢Affects young women & teenagers especially †¢A religious heritage? –Moral meanings –â€Å"Thin as sacred† / â€Å"fat as profane† (Boero and Pascoe, 2012)Notions of Community†¢Modernity and community –Stable, structured and physical (along class, gender, occupational or ethnic lines) †¢Postmodernity and community –Fluid and contingent, increased movement, virtual, viral, not reliant on modern social structures (class, gender, occupation, ethnicity). Is this a community at all?Pro-Anorexia Communities†¢2001 –Time magazine -‘Anorexia Goes High-Tech’ –Identifies pro-ana websites –Sites contain tips for weight loss, how to hide disorders from parents, deprivation diets †¢2008 –Newsweek –‘Out of the Shadow’ –Pro-anorexia communities emerge –Now interactive (Web 2.0) –Appear on facebook, myspace, etc. (Boero and Pascoe, 2012: 28) †¢Media articles and commentary is critical of pro-ana communities, thus the relation to capital is negativePro-Anorexia Communities†¢Non-recovery focused –Weight-loss information –Support (reinforcing anorexia rather than curing it) –Non-judgmental towards the disorder (Boero and Pascoe, 2012: 29) A highly contentious point –Challenges the image of isolated anorexics and â€Å"offers a view of anorexia built on interaction and, indeed, community† (ibid) –Women â€Å"log in to share their struggles, goals, triumphs, and failures in living a pro-ana lifestyle† (ibi d)Where do Boero and Pascoe Direct their Critique?†¢At traditional treatment: –â€Å"most traditional forms of treatment do not emphasize developing a feminist identity or integrate feminist critiques of feminine ideals that emphasize thinness and body perfection† (ibid) †¢At society at large – â€Å"constructions of femininity and the thin ideal fundamentally constitute the disorders themselves† (ibid) Considering that pro-ana communities harbor modern and post-modern characteristics, it will therefore be essential that the research undertaken for this paper covers a longitudinal frame of the history of ‘the body’ and specifically addresses the condition and the social representation of the female body in any given generation. To begin with, the paper explores the genesis of hegemonic femininity, dating back to the 1800’s when women were seen as ‘others’ who were judged solely on their appearance, who were exiled for having any of the same attributes as a man. This social construct gave birth to the now widespread theory of the â€Å"female psychological disorder†, after such movements as the ‘witch-hunt’, or the possession of the early modern witch (who were of course, younger women). Due to the nature of this construct, the social consequences saw a paradox emerging: rationality vs. irrationality. Younger women were conflicted within themselves, and began processing the irrational fixations the world around them had constructed with wholly rational elements of ‘the self’. Pro-ana communities therefore could label justified blame on this ideology, as the process of ‘othering’ had begun. This ‘othering’ soon led to a feeling a hegemonic femininity that wasn’t constructed by a universal form, but by the females themselves. Because women had already been distinguished and separated from their male counterparts, they began to slowly justify their appearance to a point of obsession; in order to regain control over themselves and indeed, the communities around them. Authenticity therefore plays a key feature of this construct, as it implies loyalty to the cause, righteousness of women all over the world and reinforces the distinction between man and woman in favor of the woman’s wants, and not the man’s. The Rationality vs. Irrationality argument also serves to explain the Voluntary vs. Involuntary argument. Involuntary actions such as weight loss are vindicated and sought after by pro-ana communities as the group’s rationale is solidified as a result of the action. An element of hysteria defines this general attitude; in Freudian terms, this means the wide categorization of repressed and unconscious problems such as a sexual repression and patriarchal abuse. Whether this idea is still relevant or not today will be discussed in this essay, and also subsequently whether pro-ana communities can be judged as ‘communities’ at all; given their ideological state rather than their corporeal one. It could be said that pro-ana communities only really exist in member’s minds – media platforms such as the internet and gloss magazines give members the opportunity for collectivism, acting as mechanisms with which to forward their thoughts. (More on this later) To further the history of pro-ana communities, the essay will also look at where self-starvation originated from, and how it preserved itself through the ages. Whether it be for spiritual practice or a political act, the process remains the same, and it is the authenticity of the act that gives it its weight. The essay will analyze why self-starvation implies power over the intended target (the opposite gender, governments, even God). Michel Foucault’s theory of power and knowledge will underline this deliberation, as will his book Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. In this book, Foucault defines the evolution of madness through the Renaissance, the Classical Age and the Modern Age, suggesting that in the first phase (the Renaissance) ‘mad’ people were represented in art as possessing wisdom and knowledge of the limits of our reasoned world. This gives reason for the birth of pro-ana communities. By ‘othering’ themse lves from the rest of society, perhaps they feel that they harbor more power and knowledge over sociological conformities. Foucault also argues that the conceptual distinction between ‘mad’ and ‘sane’ people was the forefront to what he has dubbed â€Å"The Great Confinement† – which saw ‘mad’ people being locked away in institutions and exiled from the rest of society. They were separated completely. But here we see pro-ana communities existing in plain sight, in media representation and even the wilful acts of its advocates. They wish to be separate; but in a way that renders them safe from total banishment, in a way that still awards them power and distinction through the authenticity of their actions. This feeling of confinement seems to be also felt in schools. Rich and Miah (2010) examined how school life can affect female self-surveillance by distorting it and separating the person as a result. The ability to self- govern is also directly weakened by these public perceptions. Thus, this section of the essay will also concentrate on the distinction between the mind and the body – a theory first introduced by Descartes. The essay will then move on to more contemporary matters such as the depiction of women in media and advertising, and specific problems caused by these perceptions such as the ‘yummy mummy’ label that has seen rise in recent years (Notably in 2007, with the creation of Liz Fraser’s The Yummy Mummy’s Survival Guide). This wave has seen even new mother’s going to extreme lengths to make sure they look as attractive as possible after giving birth. Easy-to-read books like this that are clearly aimed at housewives propel the attitude that pro-ana communities share. It is an obsession over appearance and an empowerment as a result of ‘buying in to the modern life’. What makes this matter more widespread and significant is its habit of ownership over people – For instance, when the press made Sarah Jessica Parker into public property, the general consensus was that she was allowed to be criticized, judged, labelled or complimented by any one in the world that knew her name. In this scenario, the press are the ones that benefit, the population become uniform in their opinions and Sarah Jessica Parker is seen as sub-human; not real, not authentic†¦ a picture in a magazine. The benefits of pro-ana communities therefore is that women can see each other for real, talk to one another and second-handedly urge each other to carry on the habit. Pro-anorexia communities have since appeared all over the internet on mediums such as Facebook, Myspace, etc. This platform has enabled a new breed of networking that has never been seen before. Members of a community now have the ability to share and discuss their thoughts, struggles and even brag about their condition to other women in a similar situation. Pro-ana communities have become interactive as such, and owing to negative media attention, members have become more and more disassociated from the rest of society as they believe that they are the empowered ones struggling with being misunderstood. Their mal-adaptive behaviors therefore become real, authentic actions because rationality has been linked to them in the sense that they are now fighting for something against someone. What makes these communities more disassociated and somewhat ‘mad’ themselves is that the websites they use have developed hierarchies of eating disorders, with anorexia at the top. Whether or not these hierarchies imply an order of power relations remains to be discovered, and will be something that will be un-veiled in the essay. Something that is clear however, is the fact that the online communities do seem to be heavily connected to a form of gender capital in favor of hegemonic femininity. To demonstrate how important authenticity is to pro-ana communities, the essay will also focus upon the â€Å"wannarexics†. These are the frauds of the online communities; the ones that present pictures of themselves that do not correspond to their real-life bodies. They are the subject of ridicule in a pro-ana community, and show an apparent lack of respect for those that are truly anorexic and have chosen to be as a lifestyle choice. There are policies and rules that these communities have (like any other community) to police their membership. For instance, photos must be posted of member’s bodies, and so must they post food reports of what they have eaten on any given day. Group fasting is a growing fad too; including surveys and ‘weigh-ins’. This proves that being able to relate to one another is essential in a pro-ana community, and that authenticity is the key to their survival. Self-policing is becoming a more well-known and collected movement as well (as it has been under the radar for many years before). Self-hatred is described as being as great motivation tool, as well as recounting such bodily effects as hair loss, the loss of a period and motivational insults (calling one another ‘fat’). This interaction, together with the previous point, makes up the primary points of why authenticity is truly important to pro-ana communities, and will culminate the main body of the essay. These communities are also non-recovery based; meaning that the disorder is looked upon with sympathetic, understanding eyes and in a way that does not accept that anything is wrong. Cure is not an option, or even something that should be sought out. However, the pro-ana community does accept the glamorization of ‘thinning’, and this is what brings about the importance of authenticity for members. Women depicted in the media are not as real, not as flesh and blood as the people you personally know in a pro-ana community. Whilst identifying the attributes of these communities, the essay will also examine the rise of eating disorders in the late 20th Century, and define the extent of social construction of such disorders. Body dysmorphic disorder for instance, could be argued to be a social invention put into women’s minds by the effect of media advertising; whilst on the other hand, anorexia nervosa could be deemed a legitimate medical condition. To conclude a previous point that considered whether or not pro-ana communities could be judged as communities at all; we see huge differences in the definitions of modern and post-modern societies: Modernity and Community Stable, structured and physical (Along class, gender, occupational or ethnic lines) Postmodernity and Community Fluid and contingent, increased movement, virtual, viral, not reliant on modern social structures (class, gender, occupation, ethnicity) The essay will conclude that pro-ana communities cannot be defined as ‘communities’ in the modern sense of the word, and will deliberate on how this came to be through the introduction of the internet, worldwide media etc. Furthermore, after listing the previous reasons as to why authenticity is incredibly important in pro-anorexia communities, the essay will reach a logical conclusion: that authenticity reinforces member’s power and knowledge of their gender and their gender separation – thereby allowing them to continue their hegemonic culture. Bibliography Adler, K. and M. Pointon (eds) (1993) The Body Imaged: The Human Form and Visual Culture since the Renaissance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Badger, S. (2010) ‘â€Å"Where the Excess Grows†. Demarcating â€Å"Normal† and â€Å"Pathological† Obese Bodies’, in E. Ettorre, Culture, Bodies and the Sociology of Health. Farnham: Ashgate. Chapter 7. Black, P. (2004) The Beauty Industry: Gender, Culture, Pleasure. London: Routledge. Blacking, J. (1977) The Anthropology of the Body. London: Academic Press. GN316.A88 1975. Boero, N. & Pascoe, C.J. 2012. Pro-Anorexia Communities and Online Interaction: Bringing the Pro-Ana Body Online. Body Society. Vol. 18 No. 2 27 – 57. DOI: 10.1177/1357034X12440827 Bordo, S. R. (2004) Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. Boyle, R. (1991) ‘The Art of the Body in the Discourse of Postmodernity’, in Featherstone, M., M. Hepworth and B.S. Turner (eds) The Body: Social Process and Cultural Theory. London: Sage. Chapter 11. Also in Theory, Culture and Society, 5(2): 527-542. Bray, A. (2005) ‘The Anorexic Body: Reading Disorders’, in T. Atkinson (ed.) The Body. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Chapter 12. Burke, P. (2004) ‘Frontiers of the monstrous: Perceiving national characters in early modern Europe’ in L. Lunger Knoppers and J.B. Landers (eds) Monstrous Bodies / Political Monstrosities in Early Modern Europe. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. pp. 25-39. Butler, J. (1993) Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York and London: Routledge. Cheesman, T. (1996) ‘Modernity/Monstrosity: Eating Freaks (Germany, c. 1700)’, Body and Society, 2:1 (1-31). Crossley, N. (2006) ‘In the Gym: Motives, Meaning and Moral Careers’, Body and Society, 12: 23-50. Descartes, R. 1999. Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, 4th Ed. Hackett Classics. ISBN-10: 0872204200 DuBois, P. (1988) Sowing the Body: Psychoanalysis and Ancient Representations of Women. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. HQ1134.D82 Egmond, F. and R. Zwijnenberg (eds) (2003) Bodily Extremities: Preoccupations with the Human Body in Early Modern European Culture. Aldershot: Ashgate. NX650.H741362 2003. Ettorre, E. (2010) Culture, Bodies and the Sociology of Health. Farnham: Ashgate. Featherstone, M. (2010) ‘Body, Image and Affect in Consumer Culture’, Body and Society, 16(1): 193-221. Featherstone, M., M. Hepworth and B.S. Turner (eds) (1991) The Body: Social Process and Cultural Theory. London: Sage. Ferguson, H. (1997) ‘Me and My Shadows: On the Accumulation of Body-Images in Western Society Part One – The Image and the Image of the Body in Pre-Modern Society’, Body and Society, 3(3): 1-31. Filmer, P. (1999) ‘Embodiment and Civility in Early Modernity: Aspects of Relations between Dance, the Body and Sociocultural Change’, Body and Society, 5(1): 1-16. Fournier, V. (2002) ‘Fleshing Out Gender: Crafting Gender Identity on Women’s Bodies’, Body and Society, 8(2): 55-77. Fraser, L. 2007. The Yummy Mummy’s Survival Guide. Harper Collins Publishers Ltd. ISBN-10: 0007213441. Frost, L. (2005) ‘Theorizing the Young Woman in the Body’, Body and Society, 11(1): 63-85. Gauntlett, D. (2004) Media, Gender and Identity. An Introduction. London: Routledge. Chapters 5 and 6. Gilman, S.L. (1995) Health and Illness. Images of Difference. London: Reaktion Books. Multiple chapters. Giordano, S. (2010) Exercise and Eating Disorders: An Ethical and Legal Analysis. London: Rutledge.Hancock, P. (et al) (2000) The Body, Culture and Society: An Introduction. Buckingham: Open University Press. Multiple chapters. Harris, J.G. (1998) Foreign Bodies and the Body Politic: Discourses of Social Pathology in Early Modern England. London: Sage. Howson, A. (2013) The Body in Society: An Introduction. Cambridge: Polity Press. Lunger Knoppers, L. and J.B. Landers (eds) (2004) Monstrous Bodies / Political Monstrosities in Early Modern Europe. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. D231.M66 2004. Murray, S. (2008) The ‘Fat’ Female Body. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan. Probyn, E. (2005) ‘Beyond Food/Sex: Eating and an Ethics of Existence’, in T. Atkinson (ed.) The Body. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Chapter 15. Reeves, C. (2010) A Cultural History of the Human Body. Vol. 4, In the Age of Enlightenment. Oxford: Berg. Rich, E. & Miah, A. 2010. Prosthetic Surveillance: The Medical Governance of Healthy Bodies in Cyberspace. Surveillance & Society. Rich, E. (2010) Obesity Assemblages and Surveillance in Schools. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 23(7): 803-821. Riley, S. (et al) (2007) Critical Bodies: Representations, Identities and Practices of Weight and Body Management. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan. Russo, M. (1995) The Female Grotesque: Risk, Excess and Modernity. London: Routledge. Sappington, R. and T. Stallings (eds) (1994) Uncontrollable Bodies: Testimonies of Identity and Culture. Seattle, Wash.: Bay Press. Seale, C. (2002) Media and Health. London: Sage. Shilling, C. (2003) The Body and Social Theory. London: Sage Publications. Seale, C. (2002) Media and Health. London: Sage. Shilling, C. (2005) The Body in Culture, Technology and Society. London: Sage. Shilling, C. (2008) Changing Bodies: Habit, Crisis and Creativity. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore: Sage. St. Martin, L. and N. Gavey, (1996) ‘Women’s Bodybuilding: Feminist Resistance and/or Femininity’s Recuperation?’, Body and Society, 2(4): 45-57. Synnott, A. (1993) The Body Social: Symbolism, Self and Society. London: Routledge. Turner, B.S. (1991) ‘The Discourse of Diet’, in Featherstone, M., M. Hepworth and B.S. Turner (eds) The Body: Social Process and Cultural Theory. London: Sage. Chapter 5. Turner, B.S. (2008) The Body and Society: Explorations in Social Theory. London: Sage. Wegenstein, B. and N. Ruck, (2011) ‘Physiognomy, Reality Television and the Cosmetic Gaze’, Body and Society, 17(4): 27-54. Williams, S.J. (2005) Medicine and the Body. London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi: Sage. Chapters 6 and 8.